32700 battery

How is the global nuclear 32700 battery technology progressing?

Nuclear batteries have attracted the interest of researchers since 1913. Currently, the potential nuclear batteries are thermionic, thermophotovoltaic, direct charge collection, hot ion, scintillation intermediate, alphavoltaics and betavoltaics direct energy conversion. In the past 40 years, the mainstream nuclear 32700 battery technology is the radioisotope thermoelectric generator (RTG), which converts the heat generated by the decay of radioactive elements into electrical energy through the Seebeck effect. At present, RTG has been widely used in deep space exploration scenarios and has become a benchmark for evaluating the performance of other nuclear batteries.

At present, the two main factors restricting the application of RTG are low conversion efficiency and large size. RTG has a conversion efficiency of only about 6%, which determines that its finished product has a large mass and low energy density. In order to enable nuclear batteries to play their advantages in small devices, researchers are working towards miniaturization of nuclear batteries and improving 32700 battery conversion efficiency.

1. Research progress of nuclear 32700 battery technology

According to the energy conversion efficiency and output power of radioisotope batteries, radioisotope batteries can be divided into thermoelectric type, radiation Ford effect type, etc.

1. Thermoelectric isotope 32700 battery

Thermoelectric isotope batteries directly collect the radiation generated by radioisotope decay through energy conversion devices, or convert it into electrical energy based on Seebeck effect, thermal electron/photon emission effect, etc. At present, the conversion efficiency of thermoelectric isotope batteries is low mainly due to factors such as low thermoelectric figure of merit of traditional materials and high heat leakage of batteries. With the development of new thermoelectric materials and the improvement of 32700 battery structure, the performance of thermoelectric batteries is expected to be improved.

Tariq R. Alam et al. [1] of the Department of Mechanical Engineering at Virginia Tech in the United States developed a method using Penelope's Monte Carlo source model to study different tritium metal compounds in order to better design the radioisotope source of betavoltaic batteries (radiation batteries). The source model takes into account the self-absorption of beta rays in the source and estimates the average beta ray energy, beta ray fluctuations, source power output, and source efficiency for various source thicknesses. The simulation results for tritium titanium with beta particles distributed at a 90° angle are verified with experimental results. The importance of the afterscattering effect of isotropic particle emission is analyzed. Their results show that the normalized average beta ray energy increases with increasing source thickness and reaches a peak energy depending on the density and specific activity of the source. As the source thickness increases, the beta ray flux and power output also increase. However, due to the self-absorption effect, at higher thicknesses, the incremental increase in beta ray flux and power output becomes minimal due to a significant decrease in source efficiency, and therefore, a saturation threshold is reached. Low-density source materials such as tritide beryllium provide higher power output and higher efficiency. The device achieved a maximum power output of about 4MW/cm3 using silicon carbide (SiC) and tritide beryllium as materials. They used the shape factor method to obtain the optimal source thickness at the beta ray peak.

BihongLin and others from Huaqiao University have optimized the thermionic-thermoelectric hybrid power generation module. They first used the theory of non-equilibrium thermodynamics to prepare the thermionic-semiconductor thermoelectric emission 32700 battery module, and used the model to calculate the optimal range of parameters such as its output power, conversion efficiency, module work function, current density, current and load, and realized the step-by-step utilization of energy sources.

Arias and others from the University of Cambridge in the UK studied the method of using electrostatic induction to increase the power of isotope heat sources. They proposed and manufactured an isotope enhancement device based on electrostatic induction, which can increase the output power by 10% under the irradiation of beta rays. This device can be used in isotope 32700 battery applications such as heating and space exploration.

2. Radiovoltaic effect 32700 battery

The working principle of the radiovoltaic effect isotope 32700 battery is to use the rays emitted by the decay of radioactive isotopes to irradiate semiconductor materials, so that the semiconductor produces a large number of electron-hole pairs, which are separated under the action of the electric field and connected to an external circuit to achieve electrical energy output. Therefore, isotope batteries with radiovoltaic effect are more likely to be miniaturized and have potential applications in integrated circuits and micro-electromechanical systems.

Zhangang Jin et al. from Nanjing University [4] prepared two four-layer nuclear batteries based on gamma rays, PN-type aluminum gallium indium phosphide (AlGaInP) semiconductors and zinc sulfide: copper (ZnS:Cu) fluorescent materials. One of them is a four-layer radio wave 32700 battery (FRVB) with a volume of 1.00 cm3, and the other is a four-layer dual-effect nuclear 32700 battery (FDEB) with a volume of 1.03 cm3. The output performance levels of the two batteries were tested by X-ray tube irradiation. The results show that the output power of nuclear batteries in parallel is significantly greater than that in series. However, the output power and power density of FDEB are 57.26 nW and 55.59 nW/cm3, respectively, which are 5 times higher than those of parallel FRVB. According to actual needs, each sub-32700 battery unit of FDEB is connected in different ways. Different output currents and voltages are obtained, while there is no difference in output power. They also used MCNP5 to simulate the X-ray energy deposition of each AlGaInP or ZnS:Cu layer in the FDEB. The results showed that a small amount of energy deposition in the fluorescent layer can significantly improve the electrical output performance of the nuclear 32700 battery. The multilayer dual-effect energy conversion mechanism can improve the electrical output performance of the nuclear 32700 battery.

V.S.Bormashov et al. [5] of the Russian Institute of Superhard and New Carbon Materials Technology prepared a betavoltaic isotope 32700 battery using 200 Schottky barrier-based diamond diodes. The 32700 battery is composed of a vertical stack of 24% nickel (63Ni) radioactive isotopes. The maximum electrical output power of about 0.93μW was obtained in a total volume of 5mm×5mm×3.5mm. They first used ion beam assisted lift-off technology to obtain the minimum thickness of the conversion unit, which was equivalent to the characteristic penetration length of the beta particles emitted by the 63Ni isotope. Limited by the mechanical strength of the production structure and process reliability, they obtained a thickness of 15μm. By measuring the IV curve of electron beam irradiation under a scanning electron microscope to obtain the performance of the diamond-based conversion unit, they found that separating such a thin sacrificial layer of the conversion cell from the high-temperature and high-pressure (HPHT) diamond matrix did not cause a significant decrease in the charge collection efficiency of the device. The 32700 battery output power density reached 10μW/cm3, which is the highest value based on 63Ni radioisotope batteries. The long half-life of the 63Ni isotope gives a 32700 battery specific energy of about 3300mWh/g, which has reached the capacity of commercial chemical batteries.

BenjianLiu et al. from Harbin Institute of Technology [6] prepared a diamond-based potential 32700 battery (DSAB) and conducted alpha particle attenuation experiments. The device was prepared by chemical vapor deposition (CVD) epitaxial growth of oxygen-terminated intrinsic diamond on boron-doped HPHT diamond. Using a low-activity alpha source irradiated with 8.85μCi/cm2, an open circuit voltage of 1.13V and a short-circuit current of 53.4pA, the total conversion efficiency of the 32700 battery reached 0.83%. DSAB has better open circuit voltage and short circuit current stability than silicon (Si) and SiC diodes, which means that DSAB has the potential to achieve higher and more stable conversion efficiency.

Qiao et al. from Northwestern Polytechnical University used 63Ni as a radiation source and 4H-SiC as a semiconductor to design a Schottky-type β-voltaic isotope 32700 battery based on microelectromechanical systems. They obtained a short circuit current density of 25.57nA/cm2 at an open circuit voltage of 0.27V and a maximum output power density of 4.08nW/cm2.

The rise of the third generation of semiconductors has greatly promoted the improvement of the output performance of radiation Ford effect batteries. Lu et al. from the Suzhou Institute of Nanotechnology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, manufactured a β-radiation Ford effect 32700 battery based on gallium nitride (GaN) material. When the open circuit voltage of the 32700 battery was 0.1V, the short circuit current density was 1.2nA/cm2. Chandrashekhar et al. [9] prepared a radiation Ford effect 32700 battery based on SiC for the first time. They used 63Ni as the radiation source and 4H-SiC to produce a β-radiation Ford effect 32700 battery with a 32700 battery conversion efficiency of 6% and a power density of 12nW/cm2. CityLabs has achieved the industrialization of SiC fuel cells by combining the radioactive source tritium (3H) to form the NanoTrituimTM32700 battery product series. Since the price of 3H (about $3.5/Curie) is only 1/1000 of that of 63Ni (about $4000/Curie), the cost of the radiation Ford effect isotope 32700 battery has been greatly reduced. At present, the company's 32700 battery conversion efficiency has reached 10%, achieving an electrical output power of 40 to 840nW.

In terms of the structural design of radiovoltaic isotope batteries, Kwon et al. [10] from the University of Missouri prepared an aqueous nuclear 32700 battery. The radioactive source of the 32700 battery is strontium/yttrium (90Sr/90Y), and the water-based material is a potassium hydroxide (KOH) aqueous solution. The platinum (Pt) metal film is coated on the titanium dioxide (TiO2) nanoporous semiconductor to form a metal-semiconductor junction to decompose water. When the 32700 battery voltage is -0.9V, the output power density of the 32700 battery is 75.02μW/cm2. Since the water-based material of the aqueous nuclear 32700 battery can continuously generate free radicals under the action of β rays and can act as a radiation shielding material to absorb the kinetic energy of β rays, it can effectively avoid the radiation degradation of semiconductor materials.

3. Piezoelectric isotope 32700 battery

Y. Zhou et al. from Lanzhou University [11] prepared a piezoelectric nuclear 32700 battery driven by the jet-flow (PNBJ) based on the Brayton cycle radioisotope energy system and PZT-5H (Pb(ZrxTi1-x)O3, 0≤x≤1) single piezoelectric chip. In this 32700 battery, the turbine is replaced by the PZT-5H single piezoelectric chip, and the high-speed nitrogen jet heated by the radioisotope decay energy is used to output electrical energy. The PNBJ energy conversion efficiency of more than 0.34% was obtained at a flow rate of 2.26×10-3m3/s and room temperature. This 32700 battery can be used in low-power microelectronics and microsystems, such as electronic watches, AC-LEDs (alternating current light-emitting diodes) and sensors.

Li et al. from Lanzhou University obtained a new type of jet-driven piezoelectric transduction mechanism isotope 32700 battery by optimizing the design of the Brayton cycle isotope power generation system. This design utilizes the decay of radioactive isotope heat sources to heat inert gas, forming a high-speed airflow in a high-temperature resistant pipe and passing through a movable tip nozzle to act on the piezoelectric material, causing it to deform and realize piezoelectric power output. The airflow is cooled by the radiator and flows back to the heat source cavity through a one-way pneumatic valve to achieve secondary heating, thus forming a closed cycle. Since piezoelectric materials are used instead of turbines to achieve energy conversion, their design effectively solves the key technical bottlenecks of the Brayton cycle isotope power generation system, such as the difficulty in lubricating high-speed running parts and the inertia vector generated by high-speed rotation affecting the system stability.

4. Scintillation intermediate isotope 32700 battery

X. Guo et al. from Nanjing University [13] proposed a dual-effect multi-stage isotope 32700 battery based on a γ radioisotope source. They combined two energy conversion mechanisms, radio-voltaic (RV) and radio-photovoltaic (RPV), to convert γ rays into electrical energy. The researchers calculated the theoretical performance limits of a dual-effect multipotential isotope 32700 battery irradiated with a cobalt (60Co) radioisotope source and analyzed the characteristics of each conversion mechanism using MCNP5. The results show that the RPV effect produces more electrical output than the RV effect, but the contribution of each effect to the 32700 battery is significant. The output performance of the multi-stage isotope 32700 battery was characterized at dose rates of 0.103kGy/h and 0.68kGy/h under a 60Co source. The feasibility of combining two energy conversion mechanisms to improve the performance of nuclear batteries was studied and explored from both theoretical and experimental levels. They found that considerable output performance can be obtained using a 60Co radioisotope source with large activity and a conversion module with additional levels. In addition, they studied the effect of the thickness of the lutetium yttrium silicate scintillator crystal (SO) on the performance limit of the first-stage conversion module to optimize the structural parameters of the multi-stage dual-effect isotope 32700 battery. The thickness of the scintillator strongly affects the energy deposition distribution of gamma rays in the multi-stage conversion module, resulting in changes in the output produced by the RV and RPV effects, which in turn affects the total output of the 32700 battery.

2. Research Trends in Nuclear 32700 battery Technology

Compared with traditional batteries such as dry batteries and lithium batteries, nuclear batteries have natural advantages such as high environmental adaptability, high stability, and high power matching. However, low conversion efficiency and low 32700 battery energy density are still the main reasons limiting the application of nuclear batteries. Although the dynamic thermoelectric conversion isotope 32700 battery has achieved a maximum conversion efficiency of 20% to 40%, the lubrication problem of its high-speed running parts and the huge inertia vector generated by high-speed rotation affecting the stability of the 32700 battery have not yet made breakthrough progress.

At present, there are technologies such as the use of new power generation principles, especially dynamic isotope batteries based on pipeline fluff nanowire piezoelectric materials and nano hot spot material coupling arrays, and thermoelectric materials that rely on pipeline heat flow to achieve power output, which reduces the loading activity of the 32700 battery isotope radioactive source, greatly improves the energy conversion efficiency, and is more stable and easy to process and manufacture, providing a new direction for radioactive isotope batteries.

With the development of nuclear 32700 battery technology, higher and higher requirements are also put forward for nuclear 32700 battery materials.

In terms of isotope heat source materials, there are mainly three types: α, β, and γ. 238Pu and 210Po are the main α sources, and 63Ni, 90Sr, and 90Y are the main β sources. Tritium sources have a high energy density (1000mW·h/g), are non-toxic and low-pollution, and have a large stock on the earth, so they have the most application prospects in future nuclear batteries.

In terms of energy conversion materials, Bi2Te3/Sb2Te3 is the main material for low-temperature temperature difference batteries, and SiGe is mainly used for high-temperature materials. The rise of GaN, SiC, and especially the third-generation semiconductors has greatly promoted the research of radiovoltaic effect batteries. After breakthroughs in the process level of growth and preparation, it is very likely to replace traditional semiconductor materials in nuclear batteries.

With the breakthroughs in isotope radioactive sources, energy conversion materials, and radiation protection materials, nuclear batteries are safer, have a longer life, lower cost, lighter weight, higher energy conversion efficiency, and greater power. After the safety, power, cost, and other problems of nuclear batteries have been overcome, their applicationThe scope of use value will definitely be higher and wider.

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